Anıl Aksoy, Architect
Dr. Uğur Özcan, Instructor
The Modern Turkish word “taş” (“senk” or “hancer” in Ottoman Turkish), meaning stone, comes from the word “kaş,” meaning soil that has solidified as a result of compact pressure. In geology, stone or taş is known by another term (in Turkish), kayaç, which are formed from layer upon layer of minerals or fragments.
Natural stone’s durability and permanence has lent it to be the building material of choice of man since the dawn of time in order to accommodate his habitation needs. The fact that one can forge sturdy structures from it without the aid of any binding material is one of its key features, hence adding to its appeal. Luckily for us, the structural remains of many a civilisation past have survived into the present day, leaving us with many clues about their identities. Moreover, in Turkish, how stone has been used as a material is even reflected in the names of certain historical era: Yontma Taş Devri (Lit: “Carved Stone Age”, i.e. Palaeolithic), Cilalı Taş Devri (Lit: “Polished Stone Period”, i.e. Neolithic), etc.
The seeds of masonry as we know it today were planted in the Kingdom of Urartu. From there, it spread to other civilisations that perfected it over time. The Ottomans, the Seljuks, the Romans, the Greeks, the Lydians, the Phrygians, the Egyptians, the Hittites, among others had built gigantic buildings, statues, and monuments out of natural stone, and that have stood the test of time. These cultures materialised their religions through stone. Construction required years of unrelenting patience, for more often than not the material came from hundreds, and sometimes even thousands of miles away. Some of the best and most notable examples of structures—and even whole cities—chiselled entirely from stone that we know of include the pyramids (Arabic: al-thaqqara), built from tonnes-worth of heavy blocks and columns extracted from syenite quarries close to Aswan, Egypt, alongside temple lined metropolises such as Memphis, Luxor, and Karnak. In Anatolia, the ancient settlements of Troy, Pergamum, Ephesus, Aphrodisias, and Hierapolis, and the traces of quarries surrounding them reflect the level of technical knowledge of their once inhabitants. The Hittites (1200 – 200 B.C.E.) during the Bronze Age chose to use hard, dark hued stones such as basalt and andesite. Cultures dispersed around the Aegean region, on the other hand, opted for various types of white marble because it was easier to work with and to give shape to.
Across Anatolia, you can find countless marble and granite structures belonging to indigenous civilisations that date between 6 B.C.E. and 4 C.E. (approximately 1000 years ago). Marble alongside miscellaneous coloured natural stone quarries dating as far back as 3 – 4 B.C.E. also dot Proconnesus (modern day Marmara Island), Docimium (modern day Afyon-Icehisar) and Bilecik (Asgari, N).
Starting in 2 C.E., columns chiselled in granite quarries surrounding Mount Çığrı (or Ezine) in the Biga peninsula began to be make their away across Near East, North Africa, and the Mediterranean, as had been done during the Roman Empire centuries earlier.
Today, examples of unfinished granite columns that would eventually have been used at Ephesus as well as in the San Marco Basilica in Venice can still be found in quarries in the village of Ezine Koçali in the region of Yedi Taşlar.
The magnificent Ottoman architectural works of Mimar Sinan feature local Bakırköy stone, marble from quarries on Marmara Island and Afyon-Iscehisar, as well as various rocks imported from the Aegean Islands. In fact, you can see many examples that illustrated that it was not unusual for monuments of the day and of previous periods to be built using imported materials. The level of masonry on both Mimar Sinan’s Süleymaniye Mosque (finished in 1556) and Selmiye Mosque (finished in 1575) in Edirne—including the kulliyyes or Islamic-Ottoman social complexes—is nothing shy of exquisite. As a matter of fact, the masonry and filigree work on countless Ottoman-era fountains, water-tanks, and public bathhouses, too, are very much pleasing to the eye of the beholder (Yüzer, E. Yapı Magazine, volume number 277).
Ancient Rome
Overview
The use of natural stone as a building material is as old as civilisation itself. When we look at “newer” ancient structures, we see that stone slips in and out of a myriad of roles, and in rather simple dress at that: the physical structure, exterior and interior façades, terraces, ceilings, and ornamentation. Modern day advancements, particularly in terms of technology, have begun open stone’s usage to new possibilities in a wider breadth of contexts. That said, this material in a contemporary understanding would have no place as a massive carrier element were contemporary architecture itself to lack any sense of distinction.
Natural stone is being utilised more and more as a lining material thanks to technological advances. Scientific progress has changed how humanity fundamentally lives in terms of standards. An ever-increasing sense of awareness alongside sensitivity towards the environment has pushed people to want to dwell in natural environments—hence stone making a comeback in both interior and exterior architecture. Stone used to be employed as massive structural material right up until the onset of the Industrial Revolution. With the new era came new building materials, greater variety, simpler techniques, and cheaper alternatives. Concrete had begun to replace stone as the material of choice,
Pyamids of Egypt
Now, the spur of ecological problems brought about by the modern era has evoked the need for materials that are sustainable. This is where stone now re-enters the picture: it is ecologically harmonious, sustainable, and preferable from the standpoint of human health. In developed countries in particular, it is gradually taking the place of artificial materials—which, upon being recycled, pose a threat to both the body and the environment—as a wholesome, safe construction alternative (Akın, 2008).
Natural Stone’s Many Traits
Designers are now expected to juggle more responsibilities than ever before when it comes to making decisions, bringing buildings up to a higher standard of sustainability and performance, and creating greener spaces. This thus poses the opportunity to re-contemplate both the buildings themselves and the materials that support them. Stone renders this possible in that it allows answers the questions that sustainability poses creative answers using old and new materials alike, and it lends itself to becoming a potentially new vehicle of applied expression. Even though much of the sustainability world has not actively integrated stone into every single facet of art, architecture, and culture, it nevertheless as rolled of the tongues and tales of many for centuries. Therefore, natural stone can only beautiful so long as, in the long run, it too is sustainable.
The Tomb of Emir Bayındır, Ahlat, Bitlis.
Where natural stone is to be used both structurally and spatially determines which of its traits are sought after. The traits mentioned here provide just a general picture. Stone is fireproof and does not leak any toxic substance in the event of a fire. It has a highly resistant under pressure and to abrasion, and it doesn’t wear over time. In essence, it is immortal. Stone can be reused, even in the face of building exceeding its lifespan or succumbing to ruins for whatever reason. This is what makes stone sustainable. To illustrate this, crumbled or chipped pieces of marble can both be reused as a building material as well as be ground down into lime and cement. It evokes that sense of organic integrity no matter where it is used. It adds quality and aesthetic to dwellings.
The vast majority of structural materials either warp with age or gradually lose their functionality. On the contrary, natural stone not only lends a structure a unique visage, it also gives it strength. It has been used for centuries. When worked with properly, it is capable of brining out the best in restoration projects, restoring a building back to its original glory. Moreover, stone is easy to keep clean, and at virtually no cost. It can absorb heat well. Wherever it is used, it never causes unwanted heating or cooling. If your were to compare buildings made of stone with those made of other materials, you would notice that the former consumes and spends far less energy than the latter.
Natural stone can be cut in the desired dimensions at the quarry. The methods used to extract it from the quarries have diversified, moreover. Until relatively recently, stone in Turkey were extracted by cracking then with a wedge or by exploding then with dynamite. Not only did this have a damaging impact on the quarry itself, but it also damaged the stone blocks as well, to the point that they would crack upon being cut. This meant that a large portion of the extracted product was no longer valuable for anything beyond rubble. Nowadays, stone blocks are sliced using laser technology without so much as a scratch. Then, they go through a number of processing phases depending on where they are being sent to, being further sized down at specific dimensions. This flexibility allows natural stone to be used both in interiors as well as exteriors. However, it is difficult to definitively categorise it, granted how it will get used shifts according to the goal of where it will be used. Many types of natural stone can serve more than one, albeit either very similar or very different functions. Stone to be exclusively used for decorative purposes is not multi-functional. On the other hand, rubble composed of marble or other “dysfunctional” quarry stones are now utilized with decoration in mind. Of course, where certain stone types take on a structural function, a select flew—namely those that are extremely expensive and relatively fragile—too find their way as decor (Barker and Austin, 1994). Generally speaking, natural stone that directly comes from quarries either becomes a building material (e.g. in retaining and normal walls), lining (e.g. on walls, floors, terraces, stairs, roofs, etc.), insulation (e.g. heat, fire), or an aggregate material.
Choosing the right stone for a building is critical. Hence, there are standards that dictate how natural stone ought to be used. The point of their existence is to make matching the right stone with the right building easier. The TSE (Turkish Standards Institution) determines these standard (TS 699 – Methods of Testing for Natural Building Stones; TS 1910 – Natural Facing Stones; TS 2513 – Natural Building Stones; TS 6809 – Determining of Scratch Hardness According to the Mohs Scale). In order to pick just the perfect natural stone [for your project], you have to first know what the geologic (i.e. colour, texture, hardness, homogeneity, mineralogical composition, sedimentary form, degree of crystallisation), chemical (i.e. chemical composition, how it reacts with other chemicals and water), physical (i.e. unit weight, specific weight, porosity, permeability, waterproofness), mechanical (i.e. compressive strength, freezing resistance, abrasion strength, tensile strength, bending strength), technological (i.e. processing features, reserve, haulage potential), and economic (production cost, practicality) characteristics of the stone(s) you want to use are first—and well at that (Öcal & Dal, 2012, s:10).
Until the 1800’s, natural stone was used as a “massive element.” The industrial revolution changed that, transforming it into more of a “facing” or “lining” material. That noted, natural stone has become to make a rather rapid return in light of especially environmental consciousness and the desire to retreat back to Mother Nature. Compared to alternative materials, surfaces that are faced/lined with stone last significantly longer, and are economic, aesthetically pleasing, and lend buildings an air of eminence.
Marble Quarry
Ideal Properties Natural Stone Must Have Depending on Application Area
Stone constantly exposed to poor weather/climate conditions should:
-Be enclave and stylolite-free
– Be void of minerals that cause rust and corrosion
– Have minimal porosity and be waterproof
– Be resistant to freezing and have high compressive strength
– Have a thermal expansion coefficient
Stone used as flooring/terracing in high volume, open, and moist areas should:
– Be highly quartzose
– Have minimal porosity and be waterproof
– Have a Mohs value greater than 5
– Be highly resistant to abrasion, impact, and bending
Stone used on staircases should:
– Have minimal porosity and be waterproof
– Be highly resistant to abrasion, impact, and bending
Stone used on kitchen shelves, countertops, and cutting tables/islands should:
– Have minimal porosity and be waterproof
– Be highly resistant to abrasion, impact, and bending
– Be void of minerals that cause rust and corrosion (Öcal & Dal, 2012, pp.11).
Marble as a Natural Stone
Current mining legislation defines marble as any type of stone that, in addition to being strong/resilient, can be cut at desired thicknesses, polished, and used accordingly.
Geologically speaking, marble is formed when limestone is subjected to intense pressure and heat over a long period. The fossil debris comprising the limestone becomes crystallised, losing any trace of its original form (Yüksel, 1997).
It is only when human beings discovered they could easily cut and polish marble (primitive conditions considered), that they began to construct things from it—hence its entry into the history books. Even the ancient Egyptians between 5000 and 7000 B.C.E., light years before the technology era, used siyenite—which is twice as hard as classical marble—to build the pyramids. This marks an important turning point in history in that it shows us just how unstoppable humanity had become.
Today, when we use the word marble, we have to think of it in broader terms: classical marble, fossil-based limestone, conglomerates, sandstone (or certain types thereof), volcanic and igneous rocks, and gneiss-type metamorphic rocks. We now live in an era where strong and efficient cutting and polishing tools alongside a breadth of materials to apply them to at our disposal. With few exceptions, every stone can now be treated like marble, and is as auspicious as marble.
Süleymaniye Mosque.
Primitive Quarrying Methods
Wedging: In this method, naturally occurring cracks or fissures are located in the rocks, to be excavated. Wedges or channels are then driven into these cracks using basic hand tools such as a crowbar or chisel, and the stones are detached.
In Turkey, this method has been used in quarries in İslâhiye-Yasemek (in Gaziantep, for basalt), Afyon-Iscehisar, and on Marmara Island (K. Erguvanlı, 1989).
Plug & feather method: Here, a number of holes are drilled or cut into the stone at approximately 10 to 15 cm apart, with each hole be about 6 to 20 cm wide, and 10 to 30 cm deep. Then, wooden or iron plug and feather sets are inserted into the holes. The plugs are then struck with a sledgehammer in the direction of the desired split until the stone eventually cracks. Wiggling the plug around allows the block to break off. Now, a similar method is used in granite quarries, albeit using compressors and hydraulic hammers (Yüzer, 2016).
Stone saws: Traces of stone found on metal discs in several ancient quarries throughout Anatolia suggest that metal saws similar to those used to cut wood were also used cut metal (Yüzer, 1968).
Modern-Day Quarrying Methods
Diamond wire cutting: This is the most widely used quarrying method today. Holes are drilled into the rock both horizontally and vertically. Then, sharp wire impregnated with diamond beads is aligned along the holes, whereupon sawing then commences until the desired slab is cut. A hydraulic bed and lifting jack are used to detach the block from the main rock mass (Öcal & Dal, 2012).
Diamond bead-embedded chainsaw cutting machine: A relatively new method in natural stone quarrying, this system is made up of three main parts: the arm, the cabin, and rails. Such chainsaws can cleanly cut stone into geometrically perfect locks in the desired dimensions (Öcal & Dal, 2012).
Natural Stone Use in Turkey
Nestled at the heart of the Alpine-Himalayan Belt, Turkey is home to rich stone reserves containing over 400 different types of stone of various colours and patterns. Among the most common of these appear to be an extensive assortment of marbles and calcites with a spectrum of carbonate compositions and hues. These reserves date back to the Devonian and Palaeogene Periods; of that, a sizable section fall into rupture, sinuous, and overlapping zones. Certain reserves that fall outside of these zones too (namely in Western Turkey) remain as abundant today as they had centuries ago. (Yüzer, 2016).
Our nation hosts a myriad of high quality, vivid natural stone beds due to the geological framework. Portions of these Anatolian beds are millions of cubic metres large, and are still fully functioning even after thousands of years. Down the ladder of Ancient Greek, Roman, Byzantine, Seljuk, and Ottoman civilisation, the stones chiselled out these quarries spread beyond Anatolian boarders into other parts of the Mediterranean with their respective owners, only to be turned into works of art. At the centre of this were the famous Marmara Island, Afyon-Iscehisar, and Aphrodisias. Masonry, namely in the form of stone block manufacturing, continued well into the 1950’s (Kaya, G.Ş. 2009).
Marble and calcite are, no doubt, Turkey’s pulse. Her reserves are as old the Devonian and Palaeogene Periods, many of which fall into rupture, sinuous, and overlapping zones. Certain reserves that fall outside of these zones too remain as abundant today as they had centuries ago (Yüzer & Angı, 2006).
Reserves
When it comes to natural stone, we harbour incredible potential because we lie within the Alpine-Himalayan Belt. Research shows us that we have 4 billion cubic metres worth of marble, 2.8 billion m3 of travertine, and 1 billion m3 of granite reserves right at our fingertips. Data released by the General Directorate of Minding Affairs that produce approximately 27 million tonnes (i.e. 10 million cubic metres) of natural stone every single year. 4.5 million tonnes of that alone are blocks of raw stone. The remaining amount is processed across the country as slabs, strips, and tiles of various sizes and shapes. In essence, we (Turkey) hold nearly 40% of the world’s natural stone reserves.
Turkish quarries produce calcite, marble, onyx (formed from travertine), and magmatic and breccia rocks like granite, siyenite, diyabase, and antigorite, and in a multitude of pigments and patterns. With qualities that have won the world over, the quarries from which they have come forth dot much of Anatolia and Thrace. Distribution-wise, thirty-two per-cent (32%) of Turkey’s reserves rest in the Aegean Region, 26% in the Marmara Region, amd 11% in Central Anatolia, while the remaining 31% are scattered across Eastern and South-eastern Anatolia alongside the Black Sea and Mediterranean Regions.
Our rock beds house (scientifically speaking) crystalline marble that are composed of carbonate composites and formed by metamorphosis. They largely exist in clusters in metamorphic areas that, in geological terms, can be described as massive. Of these, the most high volume beds or quarries are located in Menderes, Kırşehir, the Istıanca Mountains, and Bitlis. Quarries lying beyond these rupture stones have not been overly impacted by geological tectonic deformation because of the presence of intermittent shale beds. Reserves found in the Marmara and Aegean Regions as well as Central Anatolia have remained active for centuries.
Turkey, in all of its rocky bounty, is extremely fortunate to be located where it is. Within the past 10 years, geologic research has even uncovered the existence of new stone beds in 72 of its 81 provinces. Those in and around the provinces of Afyon, Antalya, Balıkesir, Bilecik, Burdur, Bursa, Çanakkale, Denizli, Elazığ, Eskişehir, Izmir, Kayseri, Konya, Mersin, and Muğla in particular are world renowned (Migem, 2014).
Summary
Reflecting on today, we are able to harvest the fruits of technological advancement. A growing global population and both the explosion in waste alongside the dwindling of energy resources left behind in its wake is pushing us to seek out renewable alternatives. Using sustainable materials, thus, is inevitable if we want our children to live in a happier, safer, and cleaner tomorrow. In light of the qualities discussed at length above natural stone is the sustainable—and no to mention economic—material of that tomorrow. Nearly half of all natural stone reserves are found here in Turkey. Despite that, while our stone holds an important place on the world stage as an export commodity, here at home, the picture is bleak. This problem can only be resolved if manufacturing, marketing, and consumption policies some how merge with high quality projects. All of the technology that has put Italy’s natural stone on the world map is available in Turkey as well. In order for us to reach their level, we need to encourage local investors to look ahead, architects to undertake high profile projects and carefully select materials, and master masons to lend us their technical expertise. Natural stone needs to be more heavily promoted across our nation because it protects the ecological balance and saves money, as well as because our reserves are bursting at the seams. Moreover, doing so will benefit our economy by way of manufacturing and international trade.
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